Facts about Laser Beam
The light produced by laser is in the form of a narrow beam. It can be concentrated on tiny spots. Irradiance of a high degree can therefore, be achieved; the concept of irradiance is described as the power of electromagnetic radiation per unit area at a given surface. Another way in which the laser beam is launched/directed is that in which low divergence is achieved. It allows the power to concentrate even at a longer distance from the source of light.
History of Laser
Theodore Maiman is credited with the demonstration of working of laser for the first time in 1960. He gave the demonstration of laser's working at the Hughes Research Laboratories. Albert Einstein talked about the subject of laser in one of his papers in 1917. Einstein also spoke about Rudolph W. Landenburg in this paper. Landenburg was the person who had supported/confirmed the existence of emissions produced by stimulation in 1928. Valentin A. Fabrikant in 1939 made a prediction about use of such kind of stimulated in reality. The serious study of laser technology had started in the year 1957 and it was carried out by Arthur Leonard Schawlow and Charles Hard Townes. The use of laser technology in barcode applications for departmental stores supermarkets began in the year 1974.
Applications of Laser Beam
The laser beam is used in many different fields. It is commonly used in the operation of CDs and DVDs. Computer mice, optical scanners,laser pointers and printers are other devices in which laser beam finds application. It is also used in the production of holograms. The survey of land required in building construction is carried out by means of laser beams. In the medical field surgeries and cosmetic procedures are conducted with the help of laser beams. Get more information on laser eye surgery. A microwave amplifier that worked on the principles of laser was produced by Herbert J.Zeiger and James P.Gordon in 1953.
Laser Beam Welding
It is a technique used to weld/join together metal pieces by means of laser beam. The benefit of using laser beam for welding is that the source of heat can be concentrated in a narrow space; it allows for deep welds. The success rate of welding too is high. The laser beam welding process mostly finds applications in the automotive industry. The gas-state and solid-state are two types of lasers used in welding. In the solid-state lasers chromium, synthetic ruby and aluminum oxide are the media being used. A mixture of nitrogen, helium and carbon dioxide is used in the gas lasers. The purpose of both gas-state and solid state lasers is however, the same i.e. production of stimulated photons.
Laser Beam Divergence
The rate at which a laser beam expands from the beam waist is referred to as its divergence. A beam with a low divergence is considered better from the point of operation of these devices. The different techniques such as scanning pinholes, variable apertures, CCD relays and knife edges are used in the measurement of laser beam divergence. The beam profiler makes it easy to measure the divergence.
The laser beam is an important invention and has great scope for technological development. Improvements in the fields like medicine, entertainment, defense, computing, telecommunications, etc. can be brought about by means of laser beam technology. Even today, we can find many applications of this technology including that of laser cutting and many others.
The article deals with information about the topic of laser beam in short. It helps understand the properties of this beam and the applications/uses. The laser beam is an important invention as it helps in carrying complicated tasks including surgeries, welding narrows points, etc.
Tuesday, January 18, 2011
Laser Beam
Monday, January 17, 2011
How do black holes affect things near them?
Are we in danger of being gobbled up by a black hole? Actually, no. We’re pretty safe.The gravity from a black hole is only dangerous when you’re very close to it. Surprisingly, from a large distance, black hole gravity is no different than the gravity from a star with the same mass. The strength of gravity depends on the mass of the object and your distance from it. If the Sun were to become a black hole (don’t worry, it’s way too lightweight to ever do that), it would have to shrink so much that its event horizon would be only 6 km (4 miles) across. From the Earth’s distance of 150 million km (93 million miles), we’d feel exactly the same gravity as we did when the Sun was a normal star. That’s because the mass didn’t change, and neither did our distance from it. But if we got up close to the black hole, only a few kilometers away, we’d definitely feel the difference! So stellar-mass black holes don’t go around tearing up stars and eating everything in sight. Stars, gas, planets, and anything else would have to get up close and personal to a black hole to get trapped. But space is big. The odds of that happening are pretty small. Things are different near a supermassive black hole in the center of a galaxy. Every few hundred thousand years, a star wanders too close to the black hole and gets torn apart. This produces a blast of X-rays that can be visible for decades! Events like this have been seen in other galaxies, and they are a prime target for satellites such as EXIST to reveal otherwise “dormant” black holes.Astronomers have found another amazing thing about galaxies: the stars in the inner parts of a galaxy orbit the galactic center faster when the galaxy’s central supermassive black hole is more massive. Since those stars’ velocities are due to the mass in the inner part of the galaxy – and even a monster black hole is only a tiny fraction of that mass – astronomers conclude that the total mass of the inner region of a galaxy is proportional to the (relatively very small) mass of its central black hole! It’s as if the formation of that black hole somehow affected the formation of the billions of normal stars around it. EXIST will probe this suspected “feedback” between galaxy formation and supermassive black holes by investigating black holes in a very large sample of galaxies.
Sunday, January 16, 2011
How do black holes form?
The most common way for a black hole to form is probably in a supernova, an exploding star. When a star with about 25 times the mass of the Sun ends its life, it explodes. The outer part of the star screams outward at high speed, but the inner part of the star, its core, collapses down. If there is enough mass, the gravity of the collapsing core will compress it so much that it can become a black hole. When it’s all over, the black hole will have a few times the mass of the Sun. This is called a “stellar-mass black hole”, what many astronomers think of as a “regular” black hole. But there are also monsters, called supermassive black holes. These lurk in the centers of galaxies, and are huge: they can be millions or even billions of times the mass of the Sun! They probably formed at the same time as their pa rent galaxies, but exactly how is not known for sure. Perhaps each one started as a single huge star which exploded to create a black hole, and then accumulated more material (including other black holes). Astronomers think there is a supermassive black hole in the center of nearly every large galaxy, including our own Milky Way. Stellar-mass black holes also form when two orbiting neutron stars – ultra-dense stellar cores left over from one kind of supernova – merge to produce a short gamma ray burst, a tremendous blast of energy detectable across the entire observable Universe. Gamma-ray bursts are in a sense the birth cries of black holes.
Thursday, January 13, 2011
Real Ghostbusters
Respected physicists are turning their scientific minds to measuring the paranormal and other bizarre phenomena. Read on to see what they’ve discovered so far.
How to win a coin toss
In an experiment using a random event generator (REG), scientists from Princeton university in the US put the ‘mind over matter’ theory to the test.
The REG works similarly to flipping a coin so that if left alone it should flip as many heads as tails. However, scientists found that volunteers were able to sway the results seemingly by the power of their mind.
In fact, people as far away as Hungary and Brazil were able to influence the results of the REG. They’ve yet to find out why this happened but stronger emotions seemed to increase the effect. So next time you flip a coin you know what to do…
Chicks have powers too
A test involving a robot known as the Tychoscope and a group of chicks found some very interesting results.
The Tychoscope is a little robot programmed to randomly wander around a room. But when a cage of chicks was brought into the room, scientists found the robot’s behavior changed dramatically.
Rather than randomly maneuvering around the room, the robot spent more time with the chicks. Scientists suspect the chicks may have willed the robot to stay close.
For some of the chicks, the robot was the first thing they saw after they hatched so may have developed a parental bond with the robot.
- The ones who had already read the book “The Holographic Universe” by Michael Talbot, surely think these experiments can be true.
Wednesday, January 12, 2011
Weird (scientific) mistakes!
The daddy long legs is one of the most poisonous spiders in the world but its fangs are too small to inject the poison into you
This is false. The daddy long legs, or ‘harvestman’ spider does not even have venom glands, let alone fangs with which to bite you. They are completely harmless to humans. Flies, however… 
The only man-made object you can see from the moon is the Great Wall of China
This rumour began around the time of the first Apollo mission, but unfortunately it is untrue. The Great Wall of China, although long, is only around 10 ft wide. If you could see the Great Wall from space, you’d also be able to see the M25! 
Lemmings throw themselves off cliffs
Nope. The Disney film ‘White Wilderness’ started this myth around 60 years ago, but it is untrue. The lemmings in the film were pushed off the cliff by the production crew, who were attempting to show the colony migrating. 
The ‘theory’ of evolution is not a fact
An extremely common misconception. Although ‘theory’ may mean ‘educated guess’ in everyday language, in scientific terms it means something which has been rigorously tested and confirmed by experiments to be true. Evolution is a scientific theory just like gravity, or relativity – it’s not just Darwin’s opinion on how humankind came about. 
Hair and fingernails keep growing for two days after you die
This gruesome idea is far too weird to be true. In fact, your skin contracts slightly after you die, exposing more of your hair and fingernails at the roots.
There is no gravity in space
Everywhere in the universe has gravity, no matter how far away from a planet or star. Astronauts appear to be floating, but are actually falling – they are pulled by gravity because they are in orbit around a planet. 
Your shout!
Did you believe any of these were true? Share your thoughts by posting a comment using the link below.
Tuesday, January 11, 2011
Can we ever go back in time?
Time machines are commonly seen in science fiction movies and books, but no one knows how to build one.
However, it is possible to slow down time by travelling very fast relative to someone who is stationary. This was predicted by Einstein’s theory of relativity at the beginning of the 20th centaury and has since been proved many times.
One of the best examples of this was demonstrated by putting a very accurate clock on board a passenger jet. Another identical clock was kept on the ground and synchronized with the clock on the plane. After a number of long distance flights the two clocks were compared and the one that had been on the plane was running behind the clock that had stayed on the ground. The difference between the two clocks was exactly the difference predicted by the theory of relativity.
It is important to understand that this slowing down of time depends on the speed you are travelling at relative to someone else. None of the passengers on the plane would have noticed anything strange - as far as they are concerned time is passing as usual. It is only when they get off the plane and compare their watches with someone who has been stationary relative to them that they notice a difference.
Passenger jets fly at about 600 miles per hour which seems pretty fast. However, after the experiment described above the difference in time between the two clocks was less than a billionth of a second, which is why very accurate clocks were needed.
If you could travel at speeds close to the speed of light (about 186,000 miles a second) time would slow down significantly, from the perspective of someone who is not moving. Unfortunately we do not know how to build rockets that fast!
See the world differently by Physics
Seeing Inside
Microscopes have exposed the inner workings of our cells, making modern medicine possible. The latest electron microscopes can even zoom in to the level of individual molecules and atoms, whilst revolutionary imaging techniques such as MRI scanners or X-ray machines allow doctors to spy on brain activity or broken bones.
Meanwhile, progressively more powerful telescopes mean that we can explore our universe from the comfort of home. Space telescopes like Hubble have sent back thousands of stunning glimpses of far flung stars, planets, galaxies and nebulae.
You may not need to look further than the end of your nose to see a physics instrument at work. If, like over half the population, you wear glasses or contact lenses, you can thank physicists’ understanding of optics for bringing your world into focus.
More than this, physics gives us a deeper understanding of invisible processes, such as the way gravity works or how bats use ultrasound, enabling us to see our world like never before.
Revealing The Invisible
Our planet is under continual assault from the Sun, which sends streams of electrically charged particles hurtling through space at speeds of up to 750 km/sec. Known as the solar wind, these particles can ionize atoms and harm cells, potentially inflicting some serious damage. But don’t panic! Most of these particles are deflected by the Earth's magnetic field before they even reach our atmosphere, which itself mops up most of the stragglers.
The Earth produces a vast magnetic field stretching out into space, just like the field that would result from a gigantic bar magnet placed in the planet's centre. Buffeted by solar wind, this magnetic field is distorted into a tear-drop shape and is called the magnetosphere.
Magnetic fields are of course invisible, but physicists are able to build up a picture of the magnetosphere and monitor its natural variations over time using specialized instruments on board satellites.
They are also on the lookout for clues suggesting that the Earth's poles might soon flip – a phenomenon which has occurred regularly throughout the planet's history.
We'd be lost without the magnetosphere in more than one sense: not only would adventurers' compass needles no longer point North, but we, along with the rest of life on Earth, would be unlikely to survive. Even with the magnetosphere's protection, periods of exceptionally high solar activity have been known to disrupt power grids, satellites and GPS navigation.
A New Point Of View
Both these men – along with all other space travelers - were bowled over by the breathtaking view they got of the Earth. One of the most striking images ever captured on film was this photograph, taken during the Apollo 8 mission in 1968 as the crew watched the Earth rise over the Moon's surface – in the same way that we might watch a sunrise. Back on Earth, people caught an unprecedented glimpse of the planet we call home from an outsider’s perspective: a small blue marble lost in space. They were truly seeing the world differently.
Today’s space scientists have set their sights on Mars, with space agencies ESA and NASA both hoping to send a manned mission to the red planet in the next 30 years. The latest technology has also allowed us to scour the far reaches of our galaxy for planets that could harbor life. Finding out one day that we are not alone in the universe may once again revolutionize the way we think.
Sunday, January 9, 2011
Saturday, January 8, 2011
Top Ten Ranked Physics Colleges
Physics is often regarded as the most difficult major in college. It involves fairly mind bending conceptions of the universe, not to mention high level mathematics and equations. No matter what school you go to, it is important to understand that physics is going to be challenging, yet with the right effort, highly rewarding.
If you are looking for a world class physics education from one of the best physics departments in the world, consider any of the following:
1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Physics department at Massachusetts Institute of Technology has a long history as a leader in the discipline. The dynamic program has earned its ranking as the top program in the nation due to its progressive study of physics and their world renowned faculty members. The department provides students with a comprehensive understanding of the field of physics while instilling within their students the premise that no individual will ever have the privilege of knowing all. Research is a major component of the physics department with faculty members involved in projects across the globe. Undergraduate and graduate students are encouraged to participate in one of the ongoing research projects at the institution. Students have the option of participating in undergraduate physics activities through the society of physics students or undergraduate women in physics.
Students have the opportunity to pursue undergraduate and graduate degree programs at MIT. The undergraduate curriculum provides a foundational understanding of the physics field while preparing graduates for positions in one of the multitude of professions in the discipline or to continue with their study in graduate school. Two undergraduate options are offered; the focused option or the flexible option. The focused option is specifically intended for students who plan to attend graduate school. The flexible option provides a strong background in the physics discipline while permitting students to tailor the program for their particular career goals. Both curriculums provide students with the full requirements for the physics degree with varying electives. Students following the flexible option can choose to focus in computational physics, science and technology policy, premedical or law, management, astronomy and more.
2. Stanford University
The Department of Physics at Stanford University was initiated in 1891 as one of the first departments at the university. Stanford University has a long history as a pioneer in the field of physics in terms of academics and research. Research is an integral aspect of the physics department at Stanford. The research efforts of the university’s faculty members have yielded the discovery of the reflecting X-ray optics and holography as well as the invention of the laser. The various degree programs are designed to meet the needs of students with varying educational motives; for students who intend to teach in the field or those who expect to become professionals in a physics related field. Stanford prides itself on its flexible programs, distinctive interdisciplinary curriculum and their renowned expert faculty. Among their faculty members include three Nobel Prize winners and Nobel Laureates.
The undergraduate and graduate degree programs in the Physics department are characterized by their versatility and flexibility. Undergraduate students have the option of pursuing a major or minor in physics and of selecting a concentration within the physics discipline. The concentrations, which include applied physics, biophysics, astrophysics, geophysics and theoretical physics, allow students to focus on the area of physics which they intend to pursue in graduate school, in their future career or just due to a specific interest. Students pursuing degrees with a major in physics are permitted to take advantage of the expertise of faculty members from other departments. Master and doctorate degree programs at Stanford are exceptional programs. Teaching assistantships are offered as part of the program as are research, advanced placement programs, and the scientific research society known as Sigma Xi.
3. Harvard University
Since 1884, Harvard University’s Department of Physics has subscribed to the idea that both academic instruction and research are essential to the thorough investigation of the field. It is the mission of the department to advance the knowledge and to continue to gain a deeper understanding of the discipline; striving to investigate the underlying problems of the physics field through their cutting edge research and exceptional academic instruction. Throughout the long history, the department of physics has succeeded at both. The Jefferson Physical Laboratory at Harvard University was one of the first such facilities developed for the exclusive purpose of exploring the field of physics at which important scientific advancements and discoveries have significantly contributed to the field. Among the prestigious physics faculty members are ten Nobel laureates. Harvard University physics program graduates have also continued on to make important contributions to the field.
The degree programs within the Department of Physics include undergraduate, master and doctorate programs. The program introduces students to the fundamental physics laws and develops a thorough understanding of these governing rules within their students. Students are afforded the benefit of flexibility in the program when electing to pursue a concentration. The curriculum doesn’t require a substantial number of specific credits within the major which would absorb much of the time which might be devoted to a focus. Due to the flexibility, many students choose to pursue a dual concentration. A Plan of Study must be developed and approved by either the director or assistant director within the department. Faculty members continuously update the curriculum to ensure students are provided the most current information available in the field. Summer research opportunities and the Society of Physics Students provide additional learning opportunities to the students.
4. California Institute of Technology
The Division of Engineering and Applied Science at California Institute of Technology explores the fundamental principals governing the field of physics and explores the associated research issues which significantly impact the discipline. Also a pioneer in the area of physics, the department engages in revolutionary scientific exploration in the areas of DNA, solar research, and device invention intended to advance the field and address important issues. The state of the art laboratories facilitates successful and rewarding scientific discovery. The physics program is intertwined with engineering in order to effectively address technological matters. Graduates of the physics programs successfully attain leadership positions in their field as academics at other premier universities or in the professional realm.
The interdisciplinary physics degree programs offered at California Institute of Technology presents a comprehensive and dynamic curriculum which incorporates instruction on the related areas of chemistry and chemical engineering, astronomy and geological and planetary sciences. The department endeavors to offer a flexible curriculum intended to allow students to tailor the degree program to suit their interests and goals. Introductory courses are required of all students in the physics major with a range of elective courses to satisfy their interest in particular areas. Students are able to earn credit towards their degree through activities outside the classroom and can participate in research projects and fellowship opportunities managed by the department. The undergraduate program prepares the students for graduate study in the master or doctorate degree programs.
5. Princeton University
The Department of Physics at Princeton University boasts a history in physics which dates back to the 19th century and includes and association with such prominent figures in the discipline as Albert Einstein. Discovery has long been a chief concern for the department of physics which strives to instill the essential skills in their students so that they will be capable of ‘think(ing) like a physicist’. In addition to learning the foundational knowledge in physics provided to students, the individuals are trained in research skills. The university has always been and remains dedicated to superior academic instruction and exploration as evidenced by their superior faculty members. The faculty instructors are well-known experts in the physics field. Faculty members and alumni have earned more than twelve Nobel prizes for their work.
The physics degree programs prepare students for careers and further academic study. The curriculum includes classroom teaching ass well as independent study opportunities. Flexibility is a key goal of the program. Students are permitted to pursue certificate programs in quantitative and computational biology, biophysics, finance and engineering physics. The alternative integrated science curriculum program permits students to include courses in additional sciences instead of focusing solely on the physics courses. The curriculum can be customized to each student’s interests. Instead of concentrating mainly on science and mathematics, students can incorporate electives in the humanities and social sciences if they choose. Teacher preparation programs and pre-professional programs are also offered. Student activities and the study abroad option ensure students experience a rich full program
6. Cornell University
The Department of Physics at Cornell University has earned recognition for its exceptional and innovative program. The department strives to continue in their tradition of discovery and academic excellence. The university has long been considered and continues to be a pioneer in research from which has produced Nobel Prize award winning results in theoretical astrophysics and low-temperature physics. The unique and exceptional resources provide students with a comprehensive learning experience where they can experience first-hand many of the topics they explore through their academic experience. The university has research facilities located on the campus with a rare particle accelerator and numerous other advanced technologies not available on most university campuses from which students can learn.
The physics degree programs at Cornell University provide a curriculum designed to immerse students in the various facets of the discipline. Undergraduate and doctorate programs are provided at Cornell in the physics major. The MS degree is incorporated into the doctorate program and awarded to students at the appropriate point during their doctoral study. Students are strongly encouraged to pursue a broad program in physics prior to deciding to declare a concentration in one particular area of the field. Cornell emphasizes the importance of developing a comprehensive understanding of the field in order to attain a broad based knowledge of the field which will allow students to recognize the relationship between physics and all other disciplines. A broad range of student activities are offered at the university to enrich the students experience in the physics major.
7. University of California – Berkeley
The Department of Physics at the University of California Berkeley campus provides a comprehensive program which spans the breadth of the physics discipline. The department’s reputation as a pioneer in the discipline is due to relentless efforts to discover answers to the complex questions and problems of the field. The interdisciplinary program incorporates a broad theoretical exploration of the fundamental laws of physics with the practical application of the applied technological segment of the field. The University of California enjoys a long, productive history in physics characterized by influential achievements beginning in 1931. The university continues to make important contributions to the field which has resulted in advancements that continue to affect the course of the discipline today. Faculty members have been awarded nine Nobel Prizes due to their innovative work in physics.
The curriculum for the undergraduate and graduate degree programs in physics encompasses the range of essential areas of study. The university endeavors to provide an undergraduate program ensuring students are knowledgeable in all areas necessary to be successful in graduate study or in a professional position. Coursework includes study in every relevant topic from star formation and cosmic microwave background radiation to string theory and biophysics. Undergraduate students develop strong communication, analytical and laboratory skills and have a fundamental understanding of the laws of physics. Creativity is a main premise of the degree program as graduates will need this skill to be successful in developing new knowledge in the discipline. Graduate program students are encouraged to participate in one of the research projects at the university. Both programs produce graduates who become leaders in the field of physics.
8. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign
The Department of Physics at the University of Illinois strives to remain at the forefront of the physics discipline through innovative research, public outreach and excellence in instruction. Understanding the basic laws of physics has impacted the direction of every other science discipline from medicine to astronomy to environmental science. The University of Illinois strives to provide a basic understanding of these laws to their students in addition to encouraging the development and practiced application of advanced technology. Research is a chief component of the program. The department recognizes the importance of physics research in the development and future of technologies which influence contemporary life. Their faculty members are committed to both research and intellectual development.
The curriculum at the University of Illinois has evolved into a unique and innovative learning experience. The degree programs have evolved over the last decade to draw directly from the research being performed at the university and to utilize the most current and cutting edge technologies available in the field. The program stresses collaborative efforts between students, faculty, departments and majors. Boasting one of the biggest physics departments in the country, the university offers a broad educational program with world class research facilities and a wide range of courses which are offered each semester to ensure students are able to locate those suited to specific educational goals and interests. Four undergraduate curriculum programs are offered in physics which include a science and letters physics program, a specialized physics program, a teaching concentration and an engineering physics program. The graduate programs are exceptional and produce graduates prepared to enter various professional realms.
9. University of California – Santa Barbara
The Department of Physics at the University of California Santa Barbara location engages in a range of academic, research and community outreach programs for the purpose of advancing knowledge and technology in the discipline of physics. Small class sizes and expert faculty provide an intimate and exceptional learning experience. The campus resources in the physics department include a world class research facility which draws world renowned researchers from across the glob known as the Kavli Institute of Theoretical Physics, the Community Science Center which encourages independent exploration while providing state of the art equipment and a range of student programs. The faculty members include four Nobel laureates and several members of the National Academy of Science.
Physics majors at the University of California are able to pursue a range of degree options. Undergraduate students can choose to pursue either a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science degree in physics as well as a minor in the discipline. Flexibility is a key benefit of the curriculum at the university. The BS program is geared towards individuals who intend to pursue careers in the physics field and offers three separate tracks of study; standard, advanced and honors. Independent study and participation in research projects are part of the curriculum. The BA allows students to complete courses within various departments and subjects to explore the interdisciplinary nature character of the physics field. Education abroad programs offer the option of studying in approximately two dozen countries. The graduate program is recognized for its substantial contributions in the field and provides a thorough educational experience.
10. University of Chicago
The Department of Physics at the University of Chicago is dedicated to providing an integrated interdisciplinary educational and research program. The department has a history which dates back to 1893 and boasts numerous influential contributions to the field which range from advancements in the measurements of X-Rays to exploration of the cosmic rays. The university has continued this trend of discovery and advancement throughout the department’s evolution. The faculty members have been characterized by award winning scholars and researchers, a number whom have won the Nobel Prize for their efforts. The physics program emphasizes the importance of experimentation and advanced understanding of the fundamentals of the field.
Students who choose to major in physics at the University of Chicago are offered a range of educational opportunities. Undergraduate physics majors are expected to complete a program which includes coursework in introductory and advanced physics and mathematics. A specialization in astrophysics is offered as an option to students. The minor in physics is offered to students who have an interest in the field. The graduate doctorate program is offered with a range of specializations in the experimental and theoretical physics disciplines. Though the university doesn’t offer a masters program, there is a specialization in the physical sciences department for physics. Graduate students are able to obtain positions as teaching assistants.
Saturday, January 1, 2011
Einstein as a student
Late in life, when reflecting on his uncanny papers of 1905, Einstein liked to say, "Nobody expected me to lay golden eggs." A century later, nobody can expect to fully comprehend how he did it. Yet much is known about Einstein as a student,
enabling us to trace his maverick path as a fledgling scientist. It was a rough path; even with his talent and dedication, help from others was crucial. If Einstein were reincarnated as a graduate student today, it seems unlikely that he would complete a Ph.D. His saga offers perspectives that should embolden current students and prod faculty to reform doctoral programs.
find out more on the following eBook …
